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The Torah is the central work of Jewish belief. What’s in it and who wrote it?
The Torah, also called the Five Books of Moses (or the Pentateuch, or the Chumash/חומש in Hebrew), is the foundational work of Judaism. It describes the origins of the Jewish people; their covenant, as well as the nature of their relationship, with God; and provides the tools—called “commandments”—used to establish, as well as maintain, that relationship.
On a deeper level, the word “Torah” is Hebrew for “instructions,” and the Torah is also referred to as “Torat Chaim (תורת חיים),” which means “Instructions for Living.” According to Jewish tradition, God created the world for your benefit and pleasure, and the books of the Torah are His instructions for you to live a meaningful and purposeful life.
In common usage, the term “Torah” refers to the entire corpus of Jewish spiritual, legal, philosophical, ethical, and mystical writings; and the phrase, “studying Torah,” is not just limited to the Five Books of Moses, but also includes the entire body of Jewish wisdom, both ancient and modern.
The Torah’s authority derives from the Revelation at Mount Sinai (1312 BCE) when the entire Jewish nation, en masse, experienced a prophetic revelation of the Ten Commandments. That event obligated the Jewish people in Torah observance, as Moses noted in Deuteronomy 5:1-3:
Listen, Israel, to the rules and laws that I am publicly declaring to you today. Learn them and safeguard them, so that you will be able to keep them. God made a covenant with you at Horeb [Sinai]. It was not with your ancestors that God made this covenant, but with us—those of us who are still alive here today.
According to Jewish tradition, God dictated the actual text of the Torah to Moses over a 40-year period, starting with the Revelation at Mount Sinai, and culminating with Moses’s death in 1272 BCE.1 That first Torah scroll—considered the complete, authoritative version of Moses’s Torah—was stored in the Ark of the Covenant2 throughout the biblical period. It served as a master copy to check subsequent handwritten editions until it disappeared—or, according to different traditions, was hidden away—sometime before the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in 422 BCE.3
The oldest known Torah scroll that's considered complete, intact, and still in use, is the Biella scroll, which was found at the University of Bologna in Italy, and has been carbon dated to between the years 1155 and 1225 CE. Other notable older, although incomplete, Torah scrolls include the Ein Gedi Scroll, which dates to the third or fourth century CE; the Nash Papyrus, which dates back to the second century BCE, and includes the text of the Ten Commandments, as well as parts of the Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4); and the Dead Sea Scrolls, which may also date as far back as the second century BCE.
The oldest known Torah fragments are the Ketef Hinnom scrolls, which have been dated to the seventh century BCE, and include the Priestly Blessing from Numbers 6:24-26.4
According to Jewish tradition, God dictated the entire text of the Torah to Moses. That includes the book of Genesis, which proceeds Moses’s birth; the book of Deuteronomy, which is primarily a speech Moses gave near the end of his life; narrative sections—like the story of Bilaam and Balak (Numbers 22:2-24:25)—where Moses could not have been present; as well as the lengthy legal and exhortatory sections contained throughout the Torah’s five books.5
As mentioned above, the Torah was compiled over a 40-year period—starting with the Revelation at Mount Sinai in 1312 BCE, and culminating with Moses’s death in 1272 BCE—and unlike other Biblical works, only the Torah contains commandants that are considered legally binding. According the great medieval thinker and writer, Rabbi Moses Maimonides, that’s because of the experience at Mount Sinai:
The Jewish people did not believe Moses because of the miracles he performed. Whenever someone’s belief is based on miracles, he has misgivings, because he may suspect they were performed through sleight of hand or sorcery … What is the reason for believing Moses? The revelation on Mount Sinai. Our eyes saw, and not a stranger’s. Our ears heard, and not someone else.6
The Torah consists of five books:
The books of the Torah contain the instructions that God, mankind’s creator, gave to the Jewish people, and they include the tools you need to live a productive, meaningful, and spiritual life.
The Torah is a system, and its rote, perfunctory application is not enough. It requires consistent, regular study, constant awareness and a willingness to change, innovate, and grow. It’s the blueprint of the universe that enables you to bring God into your world and to see His hand in your life. It can be difficult, too, and you will sometimes fail. That’s ok. You’re not expected to be perfect. You’re expected to do the work.7
The specific commandments, mitzvot in Hebrew, that the Torah provides to achieve these goals include:
The Torah is the primary work of the Written Law, which also includes the other 19 books of the Tanach (תנ׳ך), also known as the Hebrew Bible. The Talmud is the central work of the Oral Law, although there are many other important legal, mystical, exegetical, and philosophical writings associated with the Oral Law as well.
The written Torah was composed in a way that is impossible to understand without additional information. For example, Deuteronomy 12:21 says, “You shall slaughter your cattle and sheep … as I have commanded you," and that’s it. The written Torah never explains how to slaughter your cattle and sheep, rather, it references oral instructions given at some other time. Deuteronomy 6:6-9 says, “Take these words that I am commanding you this day … and write them on the doorposts of your house and gates,” but never mentions which words, implying that more detailed instructions were given elsewhere. The text of the written Torah is replete with examples like this.
In a sense, the Written Law is an outline of how to live a Jewish life, while the Oral Law is the details. It was composed that way—in two parts, with a written and oral component—in order to keep it relevant, vibrant, and alive. The Torah’s foundational principles are timeless, but their application changes as societies, situations, technologies, and attitudes evolve. An Oral Law is adaptable, and can take those changes into account. Conversely, an Oral Law also guarantees continuity: only an expert can teach it, and that maintains an essential connection between generations.
The Oral Law was designed to be oral, but about 2,000 years ago—with the emergence of a growing diaspora and in the face of difficult persecutions—the Jewish leaders at that time began organizing it and writing it down. The primary legal works—the Mishna and Gemara, which comprise the Talmud—were written in a way that maintains the spirit of the oral transmission, and are difficult to comprehend without a teacher. That pedagogical style also applies to the many other written compilations of the Oral Law.
The Torah is the foundational work of Judaism, and contains God’s instructions for how to live a Jewish life. According to Jewish tradition, God transmitted its text—word-by-word—to Moses, and its final version was completed upon Moses’s death in 1272 BCE. The Torah is the source for Jewish practice and belief, and its details were transmitted in two parts, as both a written, as well as an oral component.
How many books are in the Torah?
The Torah comprises five books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, and is also referred to as the “Five Books of Moses.”
What language is the Torah in?
The Torah is written in Hebrew. According to Jewish mystical tradition, God looked into the Torah and created the world using the Hebrew language.
What is the Torah written on?
A Torah scroll is written on the hide of a kosher animal, which includes cow, sheep, deer, and others. A completed scroll takes on a level of sanctity, and must be treated with reverence and respect.
Great article!
G-D IS TRUE TORAH IS TRUE MOSES IS TRUE
As I learn Torah - and discuss with others. We have been taught that - the Written Torah - was given 3500 years ago. The question has been raised - WHY THEN - is the OLDEST KNOWN COPY of THE WRITTEN TORAH (Aleppo Codex) - ONLY 900 YEARS OLD - while the written Chr-stian bible & teachings - are much older?
How do we reconcile the discrepancy?
Who transmitted the ......
text......
SG MM 2610
"According to Jewish tradition, God transmitted its text—word-by-word—to Moses"
What can you say about "according to scientists ..."? Or is there only one "truth" that is acceptable?
I feel that there is much to learn from how the Torah actually came together. It's too bad if Jews aren't allowed to even ask the question.